Succinic acid (SA) (/səkˈsɪnɪk/) is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula (CH2)2(CO2H)2.
In living organisms, Succinic acid (SA) takes the form of an anion, succinate, which has multiple biological roles as a metabolic intermediate being converted into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase in complex 2 of the electron transport chain which is involved in making ATP, and as a signaling molecule reflecting the cellular metabolic state.
IUPAC name: Butanedioic acid
CAS Number: 110-15-6
EC Number: 203-740-4
Chemical formula: C4H6O4
Other names: succinic acid, butanedioic acid, 110-15-6, Amber acid, Asuccin, Wormwood acid, Dihydrofumaric acid, Katasuccin, Bernsteinsaure, 1,2-Ethanedicarboxylic acid, ethylenesuccinic acid, 1,4-Butanedioic acid, Wormwood, Succinicum acidum, Butandisaeure, Acidum succinicum, Butanedionic acid, Kyselina jantarova, Butane diacid, Ethylene dicarboxylic acid, acide succinique, Bernsteinsaeure, HSDB 791, acide butanedioique, Ammonium succinate, NSC 106449, UNII-AB6MNQ6J6L, AB6MNQ6J6L, AI3-06297, EINECS 203-740-4, MFCD00002789, succ, NSC-106449, BRN 1754069, DTXSID6023602, E363, FEMA NO. 4719, CHEBI:1574, Butanedioic acid-13C4, HOOC-CH2-CH2-COOH, Butanedioic acid-1,4-13C2, DTXCID303602, EC 203-740-4, 4-02-00-01908, NSC25949, NCGC00159372-02, NCGC00159372-04, Succinellite, Sal succini, WLN: QV2VQ, SIN, Ethylene succinic acid, Ethanedicarboxylic acid, butandisaure, succinic-acid, succinate, 9, CAS-110-15-6, 1,2 Ethanedicarboxylic Acid, Dihydrofumarate, Succinicate, Butanedioic acid diammonium salt, 1cze, 1,4-Butanedioate, Succinic acid, 6, Succinic acid, FCC, Succinic Acide,(S), 1,4-Butandioic Acid, 4lh2, 1,2-Ethanedicarboxylate, suc, bmse000183, bmse000968, CHEMBL576, A 12084, GTPL3637, BDBM26121, HMS3885O04, HY-N0420, STR02803, Tox21_111612, Tox21_201918, Tox21_303247, LMFA01170043, NSC-25949, NSC106449, s3791, AKOS000118899, Tox21_111612_1, CCG-26609, DB00139, NCGC00159372-03, NCGC00159372-05, NCGC00159372-06, NCGC00257092-01, NCGC00259467-01, BP-21128, CS-0008946, FT-0652509, FT-0773657, S0100, EN300-17990, C00042, D85169, AB01332192-02, Q213050, SR-01000944556, J-002386, SR-01000944556-2, Z57127453, F2191-0239, 37E8FFFB-70DA-4399-B724-476BD8715EF0, 26776-24-9
Succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space, changing gene expression patterns, modulating epigenetic landscape or demonstrating hormone-like signaling.
As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function.
Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, happens in some genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome, and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury.
Succinic acid (SA) is marketed as food additive E363.
The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber.
Physical properties
Succinic acid (SA) is a white, odorless solid with a highly acidic taste.
In an aqueous solution, Succinic acid (SA) readily ionizes to form its conjugate base, succinate (/ˈsʌksɪneɪt/).
As a diprotic acid, Succinic acid (SA) undergoes two successive deprotonation reactions:
(CH2)2(CO2H)2 → (CH2)2(CO2H)(CO2)− + H+
(CH2)2(CO2H)(CO2)− → (CH2)2(CO2)22− + H+
The pKa of these processes are 4.3 and 5.6, respectively. Both anions are colorless and can be isolated as the salts, e.g., Na(CH2)2(CO2H)(CO2) and Na2(CH2)2(CO2)2.
In living organisms, primarily succinate, not Succinic acid (SA), is found.
As a radical group it is called a succinyl (/ˈsʌksɪnəl/) group.
Like most simple mono- and dicarboxylic acids, it is not harmful but can be an irritant to skin and eyes.
Commercial production
Historically, Succinic acid (SA) was obtained from amber by distillation and has thus been known as spirit of amber. Common industrial routes include hydrogenation of maleic acid, oxidation of 1,4-butanediol, and carbonylation of ethylene glycol.
Succinate is also produced from butane via maleic anhydride.
Global production is estimated at 16,000 to 30,000 tons a year, with an annual growth rate of 10%.
Genetically engineered Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are proposed for the commercial production via fermentation of glucose.
Chemical reactions
Succinic acid (SA) can be dehydrogenated to fumaric acid or be converted to diesters, such as diethylsuccinate (CH2CO2CH2CH3)2.
This diethyl ester is a substrate in the Stobbe condensation. Dehydration of Succinic acid (SA) gives succinic anhydride.
Succinate can be used to derive 1,4-butanediol, maleic anhydride, succinimide, 2-pyrrolidinone and tetrahydrofuran.
Applications
In 2004, succinate was placed on the US Department of Energy's list of top 12 platform chemicals from biomass.
Precursor to polymers, resins, and solvents
Succinic acid (SA) is a precursor to some polyesters and a component of some alkyd resins.
1,4-Butanediol (BDO) can be synthesized using Succinic acid (SA) as a precursor.
The automotive and electronics industries heavily rely on BDO to produce connectors, insulators, wheel covers, gearshift knobs and reinforcing beams.
Succinic acid (SA) also serves as the bases of certain biodegradable polymers, which are of interest in tissue engineering applications.
Acylation with Succinic acid (SA) is called succination. Oversuccination occurs when more than one succinate adds to a substrate.
Food and dietary supplement
As a food additive and dietary supplement, Succinic acid (SA) is generally recognized as safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Succinic acid (SA) is used primarily as an acidity regulator in the food and beverage industry.
Succinic acid (SA) is also available as a flavoring agent, contributing a somewhat sour and astringent component to umami taste.
As an excipient in pharmaceutical products, it is also used to control acidity or as a counter ion.
Drugs involving succinate include metoprolol succinate, sumatriptan succinate, Doxylamine succinate or solifenacin succinate.
Biosynthesis
Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle
Succinate is a key intermediate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, a primary metabolic pathway used to produce chemical energy in the presence of O2.
Succinate is generated from succinyl-CoA by the enzyme succinyl-CoA synthetase in a GTP/ATP-producing step:
Succinyl-CoA + NDP + Pi → Succinate + CoA + NTP
Catalyzed by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), succinate is subsequently oxidized to fumarate:
Succinate + FAD → Fumarate + FADH2
SDH also participates in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, where it is known as respiratory complex II.
This enzyme complex is a 4 subunit membrane-bound lipoprotein which couples the oxidation of succinate to the reduction of ubiquinone via the intermediate electron carriers FAD and three 2Fe-2S clusters.
Succinate thus serves as a direct electron donor to the electron transport chain, and itself is converted into fumarate.
Reductive branch of the TCA cycle
Succinate can alternatively be formed by reverse activity of SDH. Under anaerobic conditions certain bacteria such as A. succinogenes, A. succiniciproducens and M. succiniciproducens, run the TCA cycle in reverse and convert glucose to succinate through the intermediates of oxaloacetate, malate and fumarate.
This pathway is exploited in metabolic engineering to net generate succinate for human use.
Additionally, Succinic acid (SA) produced during the fermentation of sugar provides a combination of saltiness, bitterness and acidity to fermented alcohols.
Accumulation of fumarate can drive the reverse activity of SDH, thus enhancing succinate generation. Under pathological and physiological conditions, the malate-aspartate shuttle or the purine nucleotide shuttle can increase mitochondrial fumarate, which is then readily converted to succinate.
Glyoxylate cycle
Succinate is also a product of the glyoxylate cycle, which converts two two-carbon acetyl units into the four-carbon succinate.
The glyoxylate cycle is utilized by many bacteria, plants and fungi and allows these organisms to subsist on acetate or acetyl CoA yielding compounds.
The pathway avoids the decarboxylation steps of the TCA cycle via the enzyme isocitrate lyase which cleaves isocitrate into succinate and glyoxylate.
Generated succinate is then available for either energy production or biosynthesis.
GABA shunt
Succinate is the re-entry point for the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) shunt into the TCA cycle, a closed cycle which synthesizes and recycles GABA.
The GABA shunt serves as an alternate route to convert alpha-ketoglutarate into succinate, bypassing the TCA cycle intermediate succinyl-CoA and instead producing the intermediate GABA.
Transamination and subsequent decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate leads to the formation of GABA.
GABA is then metabolized by GABA transaminase to succinic semialdehyde.
Finally, succinic semialdehyde is oxidized by succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) to form succinate, re-entering the TCA cycle and closing the loop.
Enzymes required for the GABA shunt are expressed in neurons, glial cells, macrophages and pancreatic cells.
Metabolic intermediate
Succinate is produced and concentrated in the mitochondria and its primary biological function is that of a metabolic intermediate.
All metabolic pathways that are interlinked with the TCA cycle, including the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, cholesterol, and heme, rely on the temporary formation of succinate.
The intermediate is made available for biosynthetic processes through multiple pathways, including the reductive branch of the TCA cycle or the glyoxylate cycle, which are able to drive net production of succinate.
In rodents, mitochondrial concentrations are approximately ~0.5 mM while plasma concentration are only 2–20 μM.
ROS production
The activity of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), which interconverts succinate into fumarate participates in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by directing electron flow in the electron transport chain.
Under conditions of succinate accumulation, rapid oxidation of succinate by SDH can drive reverse electron transport (RET).
If mitochondrial respiratory complex III is unable to accommodate excess electrons supplied by succinate oxidation, it forces electrons to flow backwards along the electron transport chain.
RET at mitochondrial respiratory complex 1, the complex normally preceding SDH in the electron transport chain, leads to ROS production and creates a pro-oxidant microenvironment.
Additional biologic functions
In addition to its metabolic roles, succinate serves as an intracellular and extracellular signaling molecule.
Extra-mitochondrial succinate alters the epigenetic landscape by inhibiting the family of 2-oxogluterate-dependent dioxygenases.
Alternative, succinate can be released into the extracellular milieu and the blood stream where it is recognized by target receptors.
In general, leakage from the mitochondria requires succinate overproduction or underconsumption and occurs due to reduced, reverse or completely absent activity of SDH or alternative changes in metabolic state.
Mutations in SDH, hypoxia or energetic misbalance are all linked to an alteration of flux through the TCA cycle and succinate accumulation.
Upon exiting the mitochondria, succinate serves as a signal of metabolic state, communicating to neighboring cells how metabolically active the originating cell population is.
As such, succinate links TCA cycle dysfunction or metabolic changes to cell-cell communication and to oxidative stress-related responses.
Transporters
Succinate requires specific transporters to move through both the mitochondrial and plasma membrane. Succinate exits the mitochondrial matrix and passes through the inner mitochondrial membrane via dicarboxylate transporters, primarily SLC25A10, a succinate-fumarate/malate transporter.
In the second step of mitochondrial export, succinate readily crosses the outer mitochondrial membrane through porins, nonspecific protein channels that facilitate the diffusion of molecules less than 1.5 kDa.
Transport across the plasma membrane is likely tissue specific.
A key candidate transporter is INDY (I'm not dead yet), a sodium-independent anion exchanger, which moves both dicarboxylate and citrate into the bloodstream.
Extracellular signaling
Extracellular succinate can act as a signaling molecule with hormone-like function, targeting a variety of tissues such as blood cells, adipose tissue, immune cells, the liver, the heart, the retina and primarily the kidney.
The G-protein coupled receptor, GPR91 also known as SUCNR1, serves as the detector of extracellular succinate.
Arg99, His103, Arg252, and Arg281 near the center of the receptor generate a positively charged binding site for succinate.
The ligand specificity of GPR91 was rigorously tested using 800 pharmacologically active compounds and 200 carboxylic acid and succinate-like compounds, all of which demonstrated significantly lower binding affinity.
Overall, the EC50 for succinate-GPR91 is in the 20–50 uM range.
Depending on the cell type, GPR91 can interact with multiple G proteins, including Gs, Gi and Gq, and enabling a multitude of signaling outcomes.
Effect on adipocytes
In adipocytes, the succinate-activated GPR91 signaling cascade inhibits lipolysis.
Effect on the liver and retina
Succinate signaling often occurs in response to hypoxic conditions. In the liver, succinate serves as a paracrine signal, released by anoxic hepatocytes, and targets stellate cells via GPR91.
This leads to stellate cell activation and fibrogenesis.
Thus, succinate is thought to play a role in liver homeostasis.
In the retina, succinate accumulates in retinal ganglion cells in response to ischemic conditions. Autocrine succinate signaling promotes retinal neovascularization, triggering the activation of angiogenic factors such as endothelial growth factor (VEGF).
Effect on the heart
Extracellular succinate regulates cardiomyocyte viability through GPR91 activation; long-term succinate exposure leads to pathological cardiomyocyte hypertrophy.
Stimulation of GPR91 triggers at least two signaling pathways in the heart: a MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 pathway that activates hypertrophic gene expression and a phospholipase C pathway which changes the pattern of Ca2+ uptake and distribution and triggers CaM-dependent hypertrophic gene activation.
Effect on immune cells
SUCNR1 is highly expressed on immature dendritic cells, where succinate binding stimulates chemotaxis.
Furthermore, SUCNR1 synergizes with toll-like receptors to increase the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF alpha and interleukin-1beta.
Succinate may enhance adaptive immunity by triggering the activity of antigen-presenting cells that, in turn, activate T-cells.
Effect on platelets
SUCNR1 is one of the highest expressed G protein-coupled receptors on human platelets, present at levels similar to P2Y12, though the role of succinate signaling in platelet aggregation is debated. Multiple studies have demonstrated succinate-induced aggregation, but the effect has high inter-individual variability.
Effect on the kidneys
Succinate serves as a modulator of blood pressure by stimulating renin release in macula densa and juxtaglomerular apparatus cells via GPR91.
Therapies targeting succinate to reduce cardiovascular risk and hypertension are currently under investigation.
Intracellular signaling
Accumulation of either fumarate or succinate reduces the activity of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases, including histone and DNA demethylases, prolyl hydroxylases and collagen prolyl-4-hydroxylases, through competitive inhibition.
2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases require an iron cofactor to catalyze hydroxylations, desaturations and ring closures.
Simultaneous to substrate oxidation, they convert 2-oxoglutarate, also known as alpha-ketoglutarate, into succinate and CO2.
2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases bind substrates in a sequential, ordered manner.
First, 2-oxoglutarate coordinates with an Fe(II) ion bound to a conserved 2-histidinyl–1-aspartyl/glutamyl triad of residues present in the enzymatic center.
Subsequently, the primary substrate enters the binding pocket and lastly dioxygen binds to the enzyme-substrate complex.
Oxidative decarboxylation then generates a ferryl intermediate coordinated to succinate, which serves to oxidize the bound primary substrate.
Succinate may interfere with the enzymatic process by attaching to the Fe(II) center first, prohibiting the binding of 2-oxoglutarate.
Thus, via enzymatic inhibition, increased succinate load can lead to changes in transcription factor activity and genome-wide alterations in histone and DNA methylation.
Epigenetic effects
Succinate and fumarate inhibit the TET (ten-eleven translocation) family of 5-methylcytosine DNA modifying enzymes and the JmjC domain-containing histone lysine demethylase (KDM).
Pathologically elevated levels of succinate lead to hypermethylation, epigenetic silencing and changes in neuroendocrine differentiation, potentially driving cancer formation.
Gene regulation
Succinate inhibition of prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs) stabilizes the transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)1α.
PHDs hydroxylate proline in parallel to oxidatively decarboxylating 2-oxyglutarate to succinate and CO2.
In humans, three HIF prolyl 4-hydroxylases regulate the stability of HIFs.
Hydroxylation of two prolyl residues in HIF1α facilitates ubiquitin ligation, thus marking it for proteolytic destruction by the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway.
Since PHDs have an absolute requirement for molecular oxygen, this process is suppressed in hypoxia allowing HIF1α to escape destruction.
High concentrations of succinate will mimic the hypoxia state by suppressing PHDs, therefore stabilizing HIF1α and inducing the transcription of HIF1-dependent genes even under normal oxygen conditions.
HIF1 is known to induce transcription of more than 60 genes, including genes involved in vascularization and angiogenesis, energy metabolism, cell survival, and tumor invasion.
Role in human health
Inflammation
Metabolic signaling involving succinate can be involved in inflammation via stabilization of HIF1-alpha or GPR91 signaling in innate immune cells.
Through these mechanisms, succinate accumulation has been shown to regulate production of inflammatory cytokines.
For dendritic cells, succinate functions as a chemoattractant and increases their antigen-presenting function via receptor stimulated cytokine production.
In inflammatory macrophages, succinate-induced stability of HIF1 results in increased transcription of HIF1-dependent genes, including the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β.
Other inflammatory cytokines produced by activated macrophages such as tumor necrosis factor or interleukin 6 are not directly affected by succinate and HIF1.
The mechanism by which succinate accumulates in immune cells is not fully understood.
Activation of inflammatory macrophages through toll-like receptors induces a metabolic shift towards glycolysis.
In spite of a general downregulation of the TCA cycle under these conditions, succinate concentration is increased. However, lipopolysaccharides involved in the activation of macrophages increase glutamine and GABA transporters.
Succinate may thus be produced from enhanced glutamine metabolism via alpha-ketoglutarate or the GABA shunt.
Tumorigenesis
Succinate is one of three oncometabolites, metabolic intermediates whose accumulation causes metabolic and non-metabolic dysregulation implicated in tumorigenesis.
Loss-of-function mutations in the genes encoding succinate dehydrogenase, frequently found in hereditary paraganglioma and pheochromocytoma, cause pathological increase in succinate.
SDH mutations have also been identified in gastrointestinal stromal tumors, renal tumors, thyroid tumors, testicular seminomas and neuroblastomas.
The oncogenic mechanism caused by mutated SHD is thought to relate to succinate's ability to inhibit 2-oxogluterate-dependent dioxygenases.
Inhibition of KDMs and TET hydroxylases results in epigenetic dysregulation and hypermethylation affecting genes involved in cell differentiation.
Additionally, succinate-promoted activation of HIF-1α generates a pseudo-hypoxic state that can promote tumorneogensis by transcriptional activation of genes involved in proliferation, metabolism and angiogenesis.
The other two oncometabolites, fumarate and 2-hydroxyglutarate have similar structures to succinate and function through parallel HIF-inducing oncogenic mechanisms.
Ischemia reperfusion injury
Succinate accumulation under hypoxic conditions has been implicated in the reperfusion injury through increased ROS production.
During ischemia, succinate accumulates. Upon reperfusion, succinate is rapidly oxidized leading to abrupt and extensive production of ROS.
ROS then trigger the cellular apoptotic machinery or induce oxidative damage to proteins, membranes, organelles etc.
In animal models, pharmacological inhibition of ischemic succinate accumulation ameliorated ischemia-reperfusion injury.
As of 2016 the inhibition of succinate-mediated ROS production was under investigation as a therapeutic drug target.
Consumer Uses
Succinic acid (SA) is used in the following products: adsorbents, fertilisers, inks and toners, washing & cleaning products, water softeners, adhesives and sealants, coating products, fillers, putties, plasters, modelling clay, perfumes and fragrances, pharmaceuticals, polymers and cosmetics and personal care products.
Other release to the environment of Succinic acid (SA) is likely to occur from: indoor use (e.g. machine wash liquids/detergents, automotive care products, paints and coating or adhesives, fragrances and air fresheners) and outdoor use.
Widespread uses by professional workers
Succinic acid (SA) is used in the following products: pH regulators and water treatment products, anti-freeze products, metal surface treatment products, heat transfer fluids, hydraulic fluids, washing & cleaning products, fertilisers, water softeners and cosmetics and personal care products.
Succinic acid (SA) is used in the following areas: printing and recorded media reproduction, health services and scientific research and development.
Succinic acid (SA) is used for the manufacture of: and plastic products. Other release to the environment of Succinic acid (SA) is likely to occur from: indoor use (e.g. machine wash liquids/detergents, automotive care products, paints and coating or adhesives, fragrances and air fresheners), outdoor use and outdoor use in close systems with minimal release (e.g. hydraulic liquids in automotive suspension, lubricants in motor oil and break fluids).
Formulation or re-packing
Succinic acid (SA) is used in the following products: washing & cleaning products, water softeners, cosmetics and personal care products, non-metal-surface treatment products, inks and toners, paper chemicals and dyes and polymers.
Release to the environment of Succinic acid (SA) can occur from industrial use: formulation of mixtures.
Uses at industrial sites
Succinic acid (SA) is used in the following products: pH regulators and water treatment products, metal surface treatment products, leather treatment products, metal working fluids and laboratory chemicals.
Succinic acid (SA) is used in the following areas: municipal supply (e.g. electricity, steam, gas, water) and sewage treatment and scientific research and development.
Succinic acid (SA) is used for the manufacture of: chemicals, plastic products and textile, leather or fur.
Release to the environment of Succinic acid (SA) can occur from industrial use: in processing aids at industrial sites, as an intermediate step in further manufacturing of another substance (use of intermediates), for thermoplastic manufacture, in the production of articles and as processing aid.
Succinic acid (SA) appears as white crystals or shiny white odorless crystalline powder. pH of 0.1 molar solution: 2.7. Very acid taste.
Succinic acid (SA) is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid resulting from the formal oxidation of each of the terminal methyl groups of butane to the corresponding carboxy group.
Succinic acid (SA) is an intermediate metabolite in the citric acid cycle.
Succinic acid (SA) has a role as a nutraceutical, a radiation protective agent, an anti-ulcer drug, a micronutrient and a fundamental metabolite.
Succinic acid (SA) is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid and a C4-dicarboxylic acid. Succinic acid (SA) is a conjugate acid of a succinate(1-).
A water-soluble, colorless crystal with an acid taste that is used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters.
Succinic acid (SA) is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent.
Succinic acid (SA) is a dicarboxylic acid.
The anion, succinate, is a component of the citric acid cycle capable of donating electrons to the electron transfer chain.
Succinic acid (SA) is created as a byproduct of the fermentation of sugar.
Succinic acid (SA) lends to fermented beverages such as wine and beer a common taste that is a combination of saltiness, bitterness and acidity.
Succinate is commonly used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters.
Succinic acid (SA) is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent.
Succinate plays a role in the citric acid cycle, an energy-yielding process and is metabolized by succinate dehydrogenase to fumarate.
Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) plays an important role in the mitochondria, being both part of the respiratory chain and the Krebs cycle.
SDH with a covalently attached FAD prosthetic group, binds enzyme substrates (succinate and fumarate) and physiological regulators (oxaloacetate and ATP).
Oxidizing succinate links SDH to the fast-cycling Krebs cycle portion where it participates in the breakdown of acetyl-CoA throughout the whole Krebs cycle.
Succinate can readily be imported into the mitochondrial matrix by the n-butylmalonate- (or phenylsuccinate-) sensitive dicarboxylate carrier in exchange with inorganic phosphate or another organic acid, e.g. malate.
(A3509) Mutations in the four genes encoding the subunits of succinate dehydrogenase are associated with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations.
Succinate also acts as an oncometabolite.
Succinate inhibits 2-oxoglutarate-dependent histone and DNA demethylase enzymes, resulting in epigenetic silencing that affects neuroendocrine differentiation.
Toxin and Toxin Target Database (T3DB)
A water-soluble, colorless crystal with an acid taste that is used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters.
Succinic acid (SA) is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent.
Density: 1.56 g/cm3
Melting point: 184–190 °C
Boiling point: 235 °C
Molecular Weight: 118.09 g/mol
XLogP3: -0.6
Hydrogen Bond Donor Count: 2
Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count: 4
Rotatable Bond Count: 3
Exact Mass: 118.02660867 g/mol
Monoisotopic Mass: 118.02660867 g/mol
Topological Polar Surface Area: 74.6Ų
Heavy Atom Count: 8
Formal Charge: 0
Complexity: 92.6
Isotope Atom Count: 0
Defined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
Defined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
Covalently-Bonded Unit Count: 1
Compound Is Canonicalized: Yes
Succinic acid (SA), also called Butanedioic Acid, a dicarboxylic acid of molecular formula C4H6O4 that is widely distributed in almost all plant and animal tissues and that plays a significant role in intermediary metabolism.
Succinic acid (SA) is a colourless crystalline solid, soluble in water, with a melting point of 185–187 °C.
Succinic acid (SA) is a precursor to some polyesters and a component of some alkyd resins.
Succinic acid (SA)) can be synthesized using Succinic acid (SA) as a precursor.
The automotive and electronics industries heavily rely on BDO to produce connectors, insulators, wheel covers, gearshift knobs and reinforcing beams.
Succinic acid (SA) also serves as the bases of certain biodegradable polymers, which are of interest in tissue engineering applications.
Acylation with Succinic acid (SA) is called succination.
Oversuccination occurs when more than one succinate adds to a substrate
As a food additive and dietary supplement, Succinic acid (SA) is generally recognized as safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Succinic acid (SA) is used primarily as an acidity regulator[20] in the food and beverage industry.
Succinic acid (SA) is also available as a flavoring agent, contributing a somewhat sour and astringent component to umami taste.
As an excipient in pharmaceutical products, it is also used to control acidity or as a counter ion.
Drugs involving succinate include metoprolol succinate, sumatriptan succinate, Doxylamine succinate or solifenacin succinate.
The Succinic acid (SA) (Succinate) assay kit is suitable for the specific assay of Succinic acid (SA) in wine, cheese, eggs, sauce and other food products.
Succinic acid (SA) (or succinate) is found in all plant and animal materials as a result of the central metabolic role played by this dicarboxylic acid in the Citric Acid Cycle.
Succinic acid (SA) concentrations are monitored in the manufacture of numerous foodstuffs and beverages, including wine, soy sauce, soy bean flour, fruit juice and dairy products (e.g. cheese).
Succinic acid (SA) may be used in the following processes:
As a leaching agent in extracting lithium (Li), cobalt from used Li-ion batteries and magnesium from magnesite ore.
Synthesis of new elastic polyesters.
As a cocrystallising agent in the synthesis of cocrystals with organic molecules.
Succinic acid (SA) (succinate) is a dicarboxylic acid.
Succinic acid (SA) is an important component of the citric acid or TCA cycle and is capable of donating electrons to the electron transfer chain.
Succinate is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to mammals.
In eukaryotes, succinate is generated in the mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA).
Succinate can readily be imported into the mitochondrial matrix by the n-butylmalonate- (or phenylsuccinate-) sensitive dicarboxylate carrier in exchange with inorganic phosphate or another organic acid, e. g. malate.
Succinate can exit the mitochondrial matrix and function in the cytoplasm as well as the extracellular space.
Succinate has multiple biological roles including roles as a metabolic intermediate and roles as a cell signalling molecule.
Succinate can alter gene expression patterns, thereby modulating the epigenetic landscape or it can exhibit hormone-like signaling functions.
As such, succinate links cellular metabolism, especially ATP formation, to the regulation of cellular function.
Succinate can be broken down or metabolized into fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), which is part of the electron transport chain involved in making ATP.
Dysregulation of succinate synthesis, and therefore ATP synthesis, can happen in a number of genetic mitochondrial diseases, such as Leigh syndrome, and Melas syndrome.
Succinate has been found to be associated with D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Succinic acid (SA) has recently been identified as an oncometabolite or an endogenous, cancer causing metabolite.
High levels of this organic acid can be found in tumors or biofluids surrounding tumors.
Succinic acid (SA)s oncogenic action appears to due to its ability to inhibit prolyl hydroxylase-containing enzymes.
In many tumours, oxygen availability becomes limited (hypoxia) very quickly due to rapid cell proliferation and limited blood vessel growth.
The major regulator of the response to hypoxia is the HIF transcription factor (HIF-alpha).
Under normal oxygen levels, protein levels of HIF-alpha are very low due to constant degradation, mediated by a series of post-translational modification events catalyzed by the prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing enzymes PHD1, 2 and 3, (also known as EglN2, 1 and 3) that hydroxylate HIF-alpha and lead to its degradation.
Succinic acid (SA) is an intermediate of TCA cycle and is one of the end products of anaerobic metabolism during fermentation of a number of microorganisms.
In bio-based Succinic acid (SA) production process employing microorganisms that operate the reductive branch of TCA cycle, carbon dioxide (CO2) is fixed to form Succinic acid (SA).
Thus, by being based on renewable resources, bio-based Succinic acid (SA) production is a much more eco-friendly process when compared to the petrochemical process.
Fermentative Succinic acid (SA) production using microorganisms has been well documented, and many studies were carried out to improve the biological process for Succinic acid (SA) production.
Various microorganisms, such as fungi, yeast, and Gram-positive bacteria have been selected and studied for Succinic acid (SA) production.
The natural Succinic acid (SA)-producing bacteria, such as Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, and Mannheimia succiniciproducens, were particularly well studied and were verified to produce Succinic acid (SA) as a major end product to high concentrations with high productivities and yields.
Hence, intensive studies on metabolic engineering, optimization of fermentation processes, and separation technologies have been carried out on these natural Succinic acid (SA)-producing organisms.
Additionally, the model organism, Escherichia coli, has been considerably engineered for Succinic acid (SA) production as well.
Succinic acid (SA) is a naturally occurring four-carbon dicarboxylic acid with the molecular formula C4H6O4 that is produced by liquefied petroleum gas.
However, petroleum gas is expensive and thus Succinic acid (SA) is generated by different microbes.
Succinic acid (SA) is naturally formed by most living cells as an outcome of anaerobic digestion.
Succinic acid (SA) is a common organic acid, which can be used in many food, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries as a precursor to generate many chemicals such as solvents, perfumes, lacquers, plasticizer, dyes, and photographic chemicals.
Succinic acid (SA) is also used as an antibiotic and curative agent.
Succinic acid (SA) also finds application as a surfactant, ion chelator, and as an additive in various industries.
By biorefinery, Succinic acid (SA) can be generated through microbial fermentation of carbohydrate.
The common microorganisms used in fermentative Succinic acid (SA) bioproduction are Actinobacillus succinogenes, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, and recombinant Escherichia coli.
These strains can fix carbon dioxide during fermentation and thus reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Food waste is composed of nearly 60% carbohydrate and can be used as a substrate for production of Succinic acid (SA).
Moreover, food wastes are also rich in organic nutrients.
Thus, food waste can be used as a substrate for production of various value-added chemicals without any addition of supplementary nutrients.
However, some food waste may not contain sufficient nutrients and supplementary nutrients should be added.
The production of Succinic acid (SA) through fermentation has been widely used recently compared to conventional production using petrochemicals because it does not involve harsh operating conditions and thus requires less energy.
There are several literatures assessing the possibility of producing Succinic acid (SA) from various kinds of food waste.
Usually Succinic acid (SA) is produced from just one type of pure food waste, and there is little literature focusing on Succinic acid (SA) fermentation from mixed food waste.
These authors produced Succinic acid (SA) through lab-scale fermentation using genetically engineered microorganisms (E. coli) and A. succinogenes.
The mixed food waste consisted of vegetables, fruits, meat, rice, and noodles obtained from various canteens. They concluded that production of Succinic acid (SA) fermentatively with the help of the fast-growing microbes was beneficial without any production of by-products, thus resulting in an easier downstreaming process.
Succinic acid (SA) is one of the most promising platform chemicals with various potential applications (e.g., food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, polymers, paints, cosmetics, inks).
Succinic acid (SA) is a precursor for the production of various bulk chemicals, polymers, and resins, among others.
Succinic acid (SA) can be produced via catalytic hydrogenation of maleic acid or maleic anhydride, a process that is both expensive and harmful to the environment.
Succinic acid (SA) could also be produced via fermentation.
The strains Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Basfia succiniciproducens, and genetically engineered strains of Escherichia coli are the most well-known bacterial strains that have been employed for Succinic acid (SA) production utilizing different carbon sources derived from agricultural residues or industrial side streams (e.g., lignocellulosic biomass, crude glycerol, starch hydrolysates).
Several strains have been genetically engineered in order to enhance Succinic acid (SA) production and reduce by-product formation. For instance, Yarrowia lipolytica has been genetically engineered in order to produce Succinic acid (SA) with a higher fermentation efficiency and at low pH conditions.